20 Chapter 26: Personal Protective Equipment, Product Control, and Decontamination

Chapter Objectives

1. Describe respiratory protection used at hazardous materials incidents. [5.3.1, 5.4.1, 6.2.1]
2. Explain types of protective clothing worn at hazardous materials incidents. [5.3.1, 5.4.1, 6.2.1, 6.6.1]
3. Describe personal protective equipment ensembles used during hazardous materials incidents. [5.3.1, 5.4.1, 6.2.1, 6.6.1]
4. Explain PPE-related stresses. [5.4.1, 6.2.1]
5. Describe procedures for safely using PPE. [5.4.1, 5.5.1, 5.6.1, 6.2.1]
6. Identify procedures for inspection, storage, testing, maintenance, and documentation of PPE. [6.2.1]
7. Describe methods of spill control. [6.6.1]
8. Describe methods of leak control. [6.6.1]
9. Differentiate between gross decontamination and emergency decontamination. [5.3.1, 5.4.1, 5.5.1, 6.2.1]
10. Skill Sheet 26-1: Select appropriate PPE to address a hazardous materials scenario. [5.4.1, 5.5.1 6.2.1, 6.6.1]
11. Skill Sheet 26-2: Don, work in, undergo decontamination, and doff a Level C ensemble. [5.4.1, 5.5.1, 6.2.1, 6.6.1]
12. Skill Sheet 26-3: Don, work in, undergo decontamination, and doff liquid splash protective clothing. [5.4.1, 5.5.1, 6.2.1, 6.6.1]
13. Skill Sheet 26-4: Don, work in, undergo decontamination, and doff vapor protective clothing [5.4.1, 5.5.1, 6.2.1, 6.6.1]
14. Skill Sheet 26-5: Perform absorption/adsorption. [6.6.1]
15. Skill Sheet 26-6: Perform damming. [6.6.1]
16. Skill Sheet 26-7: Perform diking operations. [6.6.1]
17. Skill Sheet 26-8: Perform diversion. [6.6.1]
18. Skill Sheet 26-9: Perform retention. [6.6.1]
19. Skill Sheet 26-10: Perform vapor suppression. [6.6.1]
20. Skill Sheet 26-11: Perform vapor dispersion. [6.6.1]
21. Skill Sheet 26-12: Perform dilution. [6.6.1]
22. Skill Sheet 26-13: Perform remote valve shutoff or activate emergency shutoff device. [6.6.1]
23. Skill Sheet 26-14: Perform gross decontamination. [5.4.1, 6.2.1)
24. Skill Sheet 26-15: Perform emergency decontamination. (5.5.1, 6.2.1]

This chapter will explain the following topics:

• Respiratory protection
• Types of protective clothing
• PPE ensembles
• PPE related stress
• PPE use
• Classification, selection, inspection, testing, and maintenance of PPE
• Product control, including spill and leak control
• Gross and emergency decontamination

Now, what?

Let’s get learning!

Lesson 1

Outcomes:

1. Describe respiratory protection used at hazardous materials incidents

Respiratory Protection

Respiratory protection is a primary concern for first responders because inhalation is the most significant route of entry for hazardous materials. When correctly worn and used, protective breathing equipment protects the body from inhaling hazardous substances. Respiratory protection is, therefore, a vital part of any personal protective equipment (PPE) ensemble used at hazmat/WMD incidents (Figure 26.1).

Responders use the following basic types of protective breathing equipment at hazmat/WMD incidents:

• Self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA)
  • Closed circuit SCBA
  • Open circuit SCBA
• Supplied air respirators (SARs)
• Air-purifying respirators (APRs)
  • Particulate-removing
  • Vapour-and-gas-removing
  • Combination particulate-and vapour-and-gas-removing
•  Powered air-purifying respirators (PAPRs)

Each type of respiratory protection equipment has limits to its capabilities. For example, open-circuit self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) offers a limited working duration based upon the quantity of air (see SCBA section) contained within the apparatus’ cylinder. You may also need to be familiar with powered-air hoods, escape respirators, and combined respirators de-pending on what PPE you are issued. The sections that follow describe respiratory equipment (including basic limitations) as well as international standards for respiratory protection.

Standards for Respiratory Protection at Hazmat/WMD Incidents

Canada

The Canadian Government has adopted standards developed by the Canadian Standards Association (CSA) and Health Canada for respiratory equipment to protect responders at hazmat/WMD incidents. These standards have been developed due to the extreme hazards associated with chemical (such as military nerve agents), biological, radioactive, and nuclear materials that could be used in terrorist attacks. Health Canada also certifies SCBA and recommends ways for responders to select and use protective clothing and respirators at biological incidents.

The United States 

The U.S. Department of Homeland Security has adopted standards developed by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) and the NFPA for respiratory equipment to protect responders at hazmat/WMD incidents. These standards have been developed because of the extreme hazards associated with chemical (such as military nerve agents), biological, radioactive, and nuclear materials that could be used in terrorist attacks. NIOSH also certifies SCBA and recommends ways for responders to select and use protective clothing and respirators at biological incidents.

International 

Depending on their location, responders may also need to be familiar with standards regarding respiratory equipment issued by the International Standards Organization (ISO), the European Union, or other authorities.

Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus (SCBA)

Self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) is an atmosphere-supplying respirator for which the user carries the breathing-air supply. SCBA is perhaps the most important piece of PPE a responder can wear at a hazmat incident in terms of preventing dangerous exposures to harmful substances. NIOSH classifies SCBA as either closed-circuit or open-circuit. Two types of SCBA are currently being manufactured in closed-or open-circuit designs: pressure-demand, or positive-pressure. SCBA may also be either a high-or low-pressure type. Only positive-pressure open-or closed-circuit SCBA is allowed at incidents where personnel are potentially exposed to hazardous materials (Figure 26.2).

The advantages of using open-circuit SCBA-type respiratory protection are:

• Independence
• Maneuverability
• Protection from toxic and/or asphyxiating atmospheres

Several disadvantages are:

• Weight of the units
• Open-and closed-circuit
• SCBA have maximum air-supply durations that limit the amount of time a first responder has to perform the tasks at hand
• Change in profile that may hinder mobility because of the configuration of the harness assembly and the location of the air cylinder
• Limited vision caused by facepiece fogging
• Limited communications if the facepiece is not equipped with a microphone or speaking diaphragm     

Supplied Air Respirators

The supplied air respirator (SAR) or airline respirator is an atmosphere-supplying respirator where the user does not carry the breathing air source.

The apparatus usually consists of the following (Figure 26.3):

• Facepiece
• Belt-or facepiece-mounted regulator
• Voice communications system
• Up to 300 feet (90 m) of air supply hose
• Emergency escape pack or emergency breathing support system (EBSS)
• Breathing air source (either cylinders mounted on a cart or a portable breathing-air compressor)

Because of the potential for damage to the air-supply hose, the EBSS provides enough air, usually 5, 10, or 15 minutes worth, for the user to escape a hazardous atmosphere. SAR apparatus are not certified for fire fighting operations because of the potential damage to the airline from heat, fire, or debris. NIOSH classifies SARs as Type C respirators. Type C respirators are further divided into two approved types. One type consists of a regulator and facepiece only. The second type consists of a regulator, facepiece, and EBSS, and may also be referred to as a SAR with escape (egress) capabilities.

The second type is used in confined-space environments, IDLH environments, or potential IDLH environments. Any type of SAR used at hazmat or CBR incidents must provide positive pressure to the facepiece. SAR apparatus have the advantage of reducing physical stress to the wearer by removing the weight of the SCBA. The air supply line is a limitation because of the potential for mechanical or heat damage. In addition, the length of the airline (no more than 300 feet [90 m] from the air source) restricts mobility. Problems with hose entanglement must also be addressed. Other limitations are the same as those for SCBA: restricted vision and communications.

Air-Purifying Respirators

Air-purifying respirators (APRs) contain an air-purifying filter, canister, or cartridge that removes specific con-taminants found in ambient air as it passes through the air-purifying element.

Based on which cartridge, canister, or filter is being used, these purifying elements are generally divided into the three following types:

1. Particulate-removing APRs
2. Vapour-and-gas-removing APRs
3. Combination particulate-removing and vapour-and-gas-removing APRs
   

   

APRs may be powered (PAPRs) or non-powered. APRs do not supply oxygen or air from a separate source, and they protect only against specific contaminants at or below certain concentrations (Figure 26.4). Combination filters combine particulate-removing elements with vapour-and-gas-removing elements in the same cartridge or canister. Respirators with air-purifying filters may have either full facepieces that provide a complete seal to the face and protect the eyes, nose, and mouth or half facepieces that provide a complete seal to the face and protect the nose and mouth. Half-face respirators will NOT protect against CBR materials that can be absorbed through the skin or eyes and therefore are not recommended for use at hazmat/WMD incidents except in very specific situations (explosive attacks where the primary hazard is dust or particulates). Disposable filters, canisters, or cartridges are mounted on one or both sides of the facepiece. Canister or cartridge respirators pass the air through a filter, sorbent, catalyst, or combination of these items to remove specific contaminants from the air. The air can enter the system either from the external atmosphere through the filter or sorbent or when the user’s exhalation combines with a catalyst to provide breathable air. No single canister, filter, or cartridge protects against all chemical hazards. Therefore, you must know the hazards present in the atmosphere in order to select the appropriate canister, filter, or cartridge.

APRs do not protect against oxygen-deficient or oxygen-enriched atmospheres, and they must not be used in situations where the atmosphere is immediately dangerous to life and health (IDLH). APRs can only be used if the hazardous material has a taste or smell.

At hazmat/WMD incidents, APRs may be used after the hazards at the scene have been properly identified. In some circumstances, APRs may also be used in other situations (law enforcement working perimeters of the scene or EMS/medical personnel) and escape situations. APRs used for these CBRN situations should utilize a combination organic vapour/high efficiency particulate air (OV/HEPA) cartridge (see the sections that follow).

Particulate-Removing Filters

Particulate filters protect the user from particulates, including biological hazards, in the air. These filters may be used with half facepiece masks or full facepiece masks. Eye protection must be provided when the full facepiece mask is not worn. Particulate-removing filters are divided into nine classes, three levels of filtration (95, 99, and 99.97 percent), and three categories of filter degradation.

Particulate-removing filters may be used to protect against toxic dusts, mists, metal fumes, asbestos, and some biological hazards (Figure 26.5). High-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) must be 99.97 percent efficient, while 95 and 99 percent effective filters may be used depending on the health risk hazard. Particle masks (also known as dust masks) are also classified as particulate-removing air-purifying filters (Figure 26.6). These disposable masks protect the respiratory system from large-sized particulates. Particle masks provide very limited protection and should not be used to protect against chemical hazards or small particles such as asbestos fibres.

Vapour-and-Gas-Removing Filters

As the name implies, vapour-and-gas-removing cartridges and canisters are designed to protect against specific vapours and gases. They typically use some kind of sorbent material to remove the targeted vapour or gas from the air. Individual cartridges and canisters are usually designed to protect against related groups of chemicals such as organic vapours or acid gases. Many manufacturers colour-code their canisters and cartridges so it is easy to see what contaminant(s) the canister or cartridge is designed to protect against (Figure 26.7). Manufacturers also provide information about contaminant concentration limitations.

Powered Air-Purifying Respirators (PAPR)

The PAPR uses a blower to pass contaminated air through a canister or filter to remove the contaminants and sup-ply the purified air to the full facepiece. Because the facepiece is supplied with air under positive pressure, PAPRs offer a greater degree of safety than standard APRs in case of leaks or poor facial seals (Figure 26.8). For this reason, PAPRs may be of use at hazmat/WMD incidents for personnel conducting decontamination operations and long-term operations. Air flow also makes PAPRs more comfortable to wear for many people. Several types of PAPR are available.Some units are supplied with a small blower and are battery operated. The small size allows users to wear one on their belts. Other units have a stationary blower (usually mounted on a vehicle) that is connected by a long, flexible tube to the respirator facepiece.

As with all APRs, PAPRs should only be used in situations where the atmospheric hazards are understood and at least 19.5 percent oxygen is present. PAPRs are not safe to wear in atmospheres where potential respiratory hazards are unidentified, nor should they be used during initial emergency operations before the atmospheric hazards have been confirmed. Continuous atmospheric monitoring is needed to ensure the safety of the responder.

Combined Respirators

Combination respirators include SAR/SCBA, PAPR/SCBA, and SAR/APR (Figure 26.9). These respirators can provide flexibility and extend work duration times in hazardous areas. SAR/SCBAs will operate in either SAR or SCBA mode, for example, using SCBA mode for entry and exit while switching to SAR mode for extended work. PAPR/SCBA is a bulky combination. When using PAPR/SCBA combinations, it is necessary to know the composition of the atmosphere. The PAPR mode allows a longer operational period if conditions are safe for use. SAR/ APRs will also operate in either mode, but the same limitations that apply to regular APRs apply when operating in the APR mode. All combinations require specific training to use. Supplied-Air Hoods Powered-and supplied-air hoods provide loose fitting, lightweight respiratory protection that can be worn with glasses, facial hair, and beards (Figure 26.10). Hospitals, emergency rooms, and other organizations use these hoods as an alternative to other respirators, in part, because they require no fit testing and are simple to use.

Lesson 2

Protective Clothing Overview

Protective clothing must be worn whenever an emergency responder faces potential hazards arising from thermal hazards and chemical, biological, or radiological exposure. Skin contact with hazardous materials can cause a variety of problems, including chemical burns, allergic reactions and rashes, diseases, and absorption of toxic materials into the body. Protective clothing is designed to prevent these problems. Body armour and bomb suits can be worn to protect against ballistic hazards and shrapnel from explosives (Figure 26.11). No single combination or ensemble of protective equipment (even with respiratory protection), can protect against all hazards. For example, fumes and chemical vapours can penetrate fire fighting turnout coats and pants, so the protection they provide is not complete. Similarly, chemical-protective clothing (CPC) offers no protection from fires (Figure 26.12).

An appropriate PPE ensemble protects the skin, eyes, face, hearing, hands, feet, body, head, and respiratory system. While technological advances are being made to improve the versatility of all types of PPE (for example, developing more chemical-resistant turnouts and more fire-resistant CPC), you must understand your PPE’s limitations in order to stay safe.

Using your PPE correctly requires special training and instruction. When operating at an incident scene, use your PPE in accordance with standard operating procedures and manufacturer’s recommendations, under the guidance of a hazardous materials technician, or under the supervision of an allied professional (someone with the knowledge, skills, and competence to provide correct guidance), as appropriate. The sections that follow explain the various standards that apply to protective clothing as well as the different clothing types that will commonly be used at hazmat/WMD incidents. Standards for Protective Clothing and Equipment at Hazmat/WMD Incidents

As with respiratory protection, the Health Canada (DHS) has adopted NIOSH and NFPA standards for protective clothing used at hazmat/WMD incidents. Primarily, these apply to clothing worn at chemical and biological incidents in regards to chemical-protective clothing (CPC).

However, you should be familiar with any standards pertaining to design, certification, and testing requirements of any type of protective clothing, including body armour, structural fire fighting gear, and bomb suits. Depending on their location, responders may also need to be familiar with standards regarding respiratory equipment issued by the ISO, the European Union, or other authorities.

Structural Fire Fighting Protective Clothing

Structural fire fighting clothing is not a substitute for chemical-protective clothing; however, it does provide some protection against many hazardous materials. The atmospheres in burning buildings, after all, are filled with toxic gases, and modern structural firefighters’ protective clothing with SCBA provides adequate protection against some of those hazards (Figure 26.13). The multiple layers of the coat and pants may provide short-term exposure protection from such materials as liquid chemicals; however, there are limitations to this protection. For example, structural fire fighting clothing is neither corrosive-resistant nor vapour-tight. Liquids can soak through, acids and bases can dissolve or deteriorate the outer layers, and gases and vapours can penetrate the garment (Figure 26.14).

Gaps in structural fire fighting clothing occur at the neck, wrists, waist, and the point where the pants and boots overlap. Some hazardous materials can permeate (passthrough at the molecular level) and remain in structural fire fighting clothing. Chemicals absorbed into the equipment can cause repeated exposure or a later reaction with another chemical. In addition, chemicals can permeate the rubber, leather or neoprene in boots, gloves, kneepads, and SCBA facepieces making them unsafe to use. It may be necessary to discard equipment exposed to permeating chemicals. While there is much debate among experts as to the degree of protection provided by structural fire fighting protective clothing (and SCBA) at hazmat/WMD incidents, there may be circumstances under which it will provide limited protection for short-term duration operations such as an immediate rescue (Figure 26.15).

Agency emergency response plans and SOPs should specify the conditions and circumstances under which it is appropriate for emergency responders to rely on firefighter structural protective clothing and SCBA during operations at hazmat/WMD incidents. Structural fire fighting protective clothing will provide protection against thermal damage in an explosive attack, but it provides limited or no protection against projectiles, shrapnel, and other mechanical effects from a blast. It will provide adequate protection against some types of radiological materials, but not others. In cases where biological agents are strictly respiratory hazards, structural fire fighting protective clothing with SCBA may provide adequate protection.

However, in any case where skin contact is potentially hazardous, it is not sufficient. Properly identify materials in order to make this determination. Any time a terrorist attack is suspected, assume that responders are wearing only structural fire fighting protective clothing with SCBA and are at some level of increased risk from potential hazards such as explosives, radiological materials, and chemical or biological weapons.

High-Temperature Protective Clothing

High-temperature-protective clothing is designed to protect the wearer from short-term exposures to high temperatures in situations where heat levels exceed the capabilities of standard fire fighting protective clothing. This type of clothing is usually of limited use in dealing with chemical hazards.

The following are two types of high-temperature clothing that are available:

1. Proximity suits: Permit close approach to fires for rescue, fire-suppression, and property-conservation activities such as aircraft rescue and fire fighting or other fire fighting operations involving flammable liquids (Figure 26.16). Such suits provide greater heat protection than standard structural fire fight-ing protective clothing.
2. Fire-entry suits: Allow a person to work in total flame environments for short periods of time; provide short duration and close proximity protection at radiant heat temperatures as high as 2,000°F (1 100°C). Each suit has a specific use.

There are several limitations to high temperature-protective clothing:

• Contributes to heat stress by not allowing the body to release excess heat
• Is bulky
• Limits wearer’s vision
• Limits wearer’s mobility
• Limits communication
• Requires frequent and extensive training for efficient and safe use
• Is expensive to purchase
• Integrity of suit is designed for limited exposure time

Chemical-Protective Clothing (CPC)

The purpose of chemical-protective clothing (CPC) is to shield or isolate individuals from the chemical, physical, and biological hazards that may be encountered during hazardous materials operations. CPC is made from a variety of different materials, none of which protects against all types of chemicals. Each material provides protection against certain chemicals or products, but only limited or no protection against others. The manufacturer of a particular suit must provide a list of chemicals for which the suit is effective. Selection of appropriate CPC depends on the specific chemical and on the specific tasks to be performed by the wearer.

CPC is designed to afford the wearer a known degree of protection from a known type, concentration, and length of exposure to a hazardous material, but only if it is fitted properly and worn correctly. Improperly fitted or worn equipment can expose and endanger the wearer. Most protective clothing is designed to be impermeable to moisture, thus limiting the transfer of heat from the body through natural evaporation. This can contribute to heat disorders in hot environments. Regardless of the type of CPC worn at an incident, it must be decontaminated. Responders who may be called upon to wear CPC must be familiar with (and comfortable going through) their local procedures for technical decontamination.

Design and testing standards generally recognize two types of CPC:

1. Liquid splash-protective clothing
2. Vapour-protective clothing.

The sections that follow describe these two types and explains:

• Operations where CPC is required
• Written management programs that specify CPC use
• Ways in which CPC can be damaged
• Considerations for the service life of CPCg to

Liquid Splash-Protective Clothing

Liquid splash-protective clothing is designed to protect users from chemical liquid splashes but not against chemical vapours or gases (Figure 26.17). NFPA 1992 sets the minimum design criteria for one type of liquid splash-protective clothing. Liquid splash-protective clothing can be encapsulating or non-encapsulating (Figure 26.18). An encapsulating suit is a single, one-piece garment that protects against splashes or, in the case of vapour-protective encapsulating suits, also against vapours and gases. Boots and gloves are sometimes separate, or attached and replaceable.

Two primary limitations to fully encapsulating suits are as follows:

1. Impairs worker mobility, vision, and communication
2. Traps body heat which might necessitate a cooling system, particularly when SCBA is worn

A non-encapsulating suit commonly consists of a one-piece coverall but sometimes is composed of individual pieces, such as a jacket, hood, pants, or bib overalls.

Limitations to non-encapsulating suits include the following:

• Protects against splashes and dusts but not against gases and vapours
• Does not provide full body coverage: parts of head and neck are often exposed
• Traps body heat and contributes to heat stress

Encapsulating and non-encapsulating liquid splash-protective clothing are not resistant to heat or flames, nor do they protect against projectiles or shrapnel. Liquid splash-protective clothing is made from the same materials used for vapour-protective suits (see following section). When used as part of a protective ensemble, liquid splash-protective ensembles may include an SCBA, an airline (supplied-air respirator [SAR]), or a full-face, air-purifying, canister-equipped respirator. This type of protective clothing is also a component of EPA Level B chemical protection ensembles. Vapour-Protective Clothing Vapour-protective clothing protects the wearer against chemical vapours or gases and offers a greater level of protection than liquid splash-protective clothing (Figure 26.19).

NFPA 1991 specifies requirements for a minimum level of protection for response personnel facing exposure to specified chemicals. This standard sets performance requirements for vapour-tight, totally encapsulating chemical-protective (TECP) suits and includes rigid chemical-resistance and flame-resistance tests and a permeation test against twenty-one challenge chemicals. NFPA 1991 also includes standards for performance tests in simulated conditions.

Vapour-protective ensembles must be worn with positive-pressure SCBA or combination SCBA/SAR. Vapour-protective ensembles are components of ensembles to be used at chemical and biological hazmat/WMD incidents. These suits are also primarily used as part of a Level A protective ensemble, providing the greatest degree of protection against respiratory, eye, or skin damage from hazardous vapours, gases, particulates, sudden splash, immersion, or contact with hazardous materials.

Vapour-protective suits have the following limitations:

• When exposed to fire, they melt and burn. They cannot be used in potentially flammable atmospheres.
• Do not protect the user against all chemical hazards.
• Impair mobility, vision, and communication (Figure 26.20).
• Do not allow body heat to escape, so can contribute to heat stress, which may require the use of a cooling vest.

Vapour-protective ensembles are made from a variety of special materials. No single combination of protective equipment and clothing is capable of protecting a person against all hazards.

Mission Specific Operations Requiring Use of Chemical-Protective Clothing

Chemical-protective clothing must be worn in certain circumstances. Without regard to the level of training required to perform them, these are operations that may require the use of CPC:

• Site survey
• Rescue
• Spill mitigation
• Emergency monitoring
• Decontamination
• Evacuation

If responders are involved in any of these activities, consideration must be given to what type of protective equipment is necessary given the known and/or unknown hazards present at the scene. Always follow AHJ SOPs for operations requiring use of chemical-protective clothing.

Written Management Programs

All emergency response organizations that routinely use CPC must establish a written Chemical-Protective Clothing Program and Respiratory Protection Management Program. A written management program includes policy statements, procedures, and guidelines. Copies must be made available to all personnel who may use CPC in their job. The two basic objectives of any management program are protecting the user from safety and health hazards and preventing injury to the user from incorrect use or malfunction.

To accomplish these goals, a comprehensive CPC management program includes the following elements:

• Hazard identification
• Medical monitoring
• Environmental surveillance
• Selection, care, testing, and maintenance
• Training

Permeation: Process in which a chemical passes through a protective material on a molecular level.

Permeation, Degradation, and Penetration

Permeation is a process that occurs when a chemical passes through a fabric on a molecular level (Figure 26.21). In most cases, there is no visible evidence of chemicals permeating a material (Figures 26.22 a and b). The rate at which a compound permeates CPC depends on factors such as the chemical properties of the compound, nature of the protective barrier(s) in the CPC, and concentration of the chemical on the surface of the CPC. Most CPC manufacturers provide charts on breakthrough time (time it takes for a chemical to permeate the material of a protective suit) for a wide range of chemical compounds. Permeation data also includes information about the permeation rate (or the speed) at which the chemical moves through the CPC material after it breaks through.

Chemical Degradation: Process that occurs when the characteristics of a material are altered through contact with chemical substances.

Chemical degradation occurs when a material’s characteristics are altered through contact with chemical substances. Examples include cracking, brittleness, and other changes in the structural characteristics of the garment (Figure 26.23). The most common material degradation indicators are discolouration, swelling, loss of physical strength, or deterioration.

Penetration is a process that occurs when a hazardous material enters an opening or a puncture in a protective material (Figure 26.24). Rips, tears, and cuts in protective materials — as well as unsealed seams, buttonholes, and zippers — are considered penetration failures. Often such openings are the result of faulty manufacture or problems with the design of the suit.

Service Life

Penetration: Process in which a hazardous material enters an opening or puncture in a protective material.

Each piece of CPC has a specific service life over which the clothing is able to adequately protect the wearer. For example, a coverall (covering the wearer’s torso, arms, and legs) intended for liquid splash-protection may be designed for a single use. All potentially contaminated CPC requires proper decontamination when the wearer leaves a potentially hazardous area. Always follow AHJ SOPs and manufacturer’s specifications in regards to serviceability, use, and reuse.

Lesson 3

PPE Ensembles, Classification, and Selection

To achieve adequate protection, an ensemble of respiratory equipment and clothing is typically used. When determining the appropriate ensemble, consider the hazards present and the actions that need to be performed. For example, simple protective clothing, such as gloves and a work uniform, in combination with a face shield or safety goggles may be sufficient to prevent exposure to biological hazards such as blood-borne pathogens. At the other end of the spectrum, a vapour-protective, total encapsulating suit combined with positive-pressure SCBA may be needed when dealing with extremely hazardous, corrosive, and/or toxic vapours or gases, especially if the hazardous materials can damage other types of PPE and readily be absorbed through the skin.

The EPA has established a set of chemical-protective PPE ensembles providing certain protection levels that are commonly used by fire and emergency service organizations. Other organizations such as law enforcement, industrial responders, and the military may have their own standard operating procedures or equivalent procedures guiding the choice and use of appropriate combinations of PPE. Law enforcement personnel may be equipped with a far different PPE ensemble than a firefighter, hazmat technician, civil support response team, or environmental cleanup person working at the same hazmat/WMD incident. The sections that follow describe a variety of factors concerning PPE ensembles.

EPA Levels of Protection

Originally based on EPA recommendations, different levels of protective equipment are sometimes designated at incidents involving hazardous materials/WMD: Level A, Level B, Level C, and Level D (Figures 26.25 a-d). They can be used as the starting point for ensemble creation; however, each ensemble must be tailored to the specific situation in order to provide the most appropriate level of protection. Selecting protective clothing and equipment by how they are designed or configured is not sufficient to ensure adequate protection at hazmat incidents. Just having the right components to form an ensemble is not enough.

The EPA levels of protection do not define or specify what performance (for example, vapour protection or liquid splash protection) the selected clothing or equipment must offer, and they do not identically mirror the performance requirements of NFPA performance standards. Level A The Level A ensemble provides the highest level of protection against vapours, gases, mists, and particles for the respiratory tract, eyes, and skin. Level A protection provides very little protection against fire. Operations Level responders do not typically operate in situations requiring Level A protection. However, you must be appropriately trained to wear Level A PPE if you are required to wear it.

PPE Selection Factors

The risks and potential hazards present at an incident will determine the PPE needed. Many available sources can be consulted to determine which type and what level of PPE to use at hazmat incidents/terrorist attacks depending on the circumstances and hazards at the scene. SOPs may also provide guidance for situations involving rescue and initial responses. At the Operations Level, responders must operate under the guidance of allied professionals, hazmat technicians, the emergency response plan, or SOPs. Once the IAP is developed, the Site Safety Plan will spell out PPE requirements for tasks performed at the incident. In general, the higher the level of PPE, the greater the associated risks will be.

For any given situation, personnel should select equipment and clothing that provide an adequate level of protection. Overprotection, as well as under protection, can be hazardous and should be avoided. Determining the PPE level needed to enter the hot zone is ultimately the Incident Commander’s responsibility, but all responders should understand the selection process. Skill Sheet 26-1 provides steps for selecting appropriate PPE at a hazmat incident.

Consider the following general selection factors:

• Chemical and physical hazards: Consider and prioritize both chemical and physical hazards. Depending on what materials are present, any combination of hazards may need to be protected against.
• Monitoring and detection readings: Identify hazards that need to be addressed in PPE selection by monitoring and detecting readings.
• Physical environment: The ensemble components must be appropriate for whatever varied environmental conditions are present:
  • Industrial settings, highways, or residential areas
  • Indoors or outdoors
  • Extremely hot or cold environments
  • Uncluttered or rugged sites
  • Required activities involving entering confined spaces, lifting heavy items, climbing ladders, or crawling on the ground
• Exposure duration: The ensemble components’ protective qualities may be limited by many factors including exposure levels, material chemical resistance, and air supply. Assume the worst-case exposure so that appropriate safety margins can be added to the ensemble wear time.
• Available protective clothing or equipment: An array of different clothing or equipment should be available to personnel to meet all intended applications. Reliance on one particular clothing type or equipment item may severely limit the ability to handle a broad range of hazardous materials or chemical exposures. In its acquisition of equipment and protective clothing, the responsible authority should provide a high degree of flexibility while choosing protective clothing and equipment that is easily integrated and provides protection against each conceivable hazard.
• Compliance with regulations: Agencies responsible for responding to CBR incidents should select equipment in accordance with regulatory standards for response to such incidents, such as NIOSH standards and NFPA 1994.
• Protective clothing selection factors include the following:
  • Clothing design: Manufacturers sell clothing in a variety of styles and configurations. Design considerations include the following:
    • Clothing configuration
    • Seam and closure construction
    • Components and options
    • Sizes
    • Ease of donning and doffing
    • Clothing construction
    • Accommodation of other selected ensemble equipment
    • Comfort
    • Restriction of mobility
  • Material chemical resistance: The chosen material(s) must resist permeation, degradation, and penetration by the respective chemicals. Mixtures of chemicals can be significantly more aggressive towards protective clothing materials than any single chemical alone. One permeating chemical may pull another with it through the material. Other situations may involve unidentified substances.
  • Details: Very little test data are available for chemical mixtures. If clothing must be used without test data, choose clothing that demonstrates the best chemical resistance against the widest range of chemicals.
    • In cases of chemical mixtures and unknowns, serious consideration must be given to selecting protective clothing.
  • Physical properties: Clothing materials may offer wide ranges of physical qualities in terms of strength, resistance to physical hazards, and operation in extreme environmental conditions. Comprehensive performance standards (such as those from NFPA) set specific limits on these material properties, but only for limited applications such as emergency response. Users may also need to ask manufacturers the following questions:
    • Does the material have sufficient strength to withstand the physical demands of the tasks at hand?
    • Will the material resist tears, punctures, cuts, and abrasions?
    • Will the material withstand repeated use after contamination and decontamination?
    • Is the material flexible or pliable enough to allow users to perform needed tasks?
    • Will the material maintain its protective integrity and flexibility under hot and cold extremes?
    • Is the material subject to creation of a static electrical charge and discharge that could provide an ignition source?
    • Is the material flame-resistant or self-extinguishing (if these hazards are present)?
    • Are garment seams in the clothing constructed so they provide the same physical integrity as the garment material?
• Ease of decontamination: The degree of difficulty in decontaminating protective clothing may dictate whether disposable clothing, reusable clothing, or a combination of both is used.
• Interoperability with other types of equipment: Interoperability issues should be considered; for example, whether or not communications equipment can be integrated into the ensemble.

Typical Ensembles of Response Personnel

The ensemble worn at an incident will vary depending on the mission of the responder. PPE for urban search and rescue (US&R) personnel will differ from that of hazmat response teams, and so forth. However, responders of any discipline must be aware of what hazards are present at the incident and what PPE is necessary to protect against the hazards to which they may be exposed. For example, if respiratory hazards exist at the incident, all personnel who might be exposed to these hazards must wear respiratory protection regardless of their mission. It is important that personnel who may need to use such PPE be trained to do so.

Fire service personnel will wear ensembles appropriate for their mission at the incident, including typical fire fighting operations (such as fire extinguishment), hazardous materials response, and urban search and rescue (Figure 26.26). Table 26.1 shows a conservative estimate of the effectiveness of typical fire service PPE ensembles in the hot zone of hazmat/WMD incidents. EMS ensembles are described in a later, separate section.

The majority of responders will initially be wearing structural fire fighting protective clothing ensembles (turn-out gear) that may offer limited protection against hazmat/ WMD hazards. These ensembles may be appropriate for conducting some operations (such as rescue) at hazmat/ WMD incidents given appropriate protective measures such as limited exposure times.

Responders trained to use CPC at hazmat events may don EPA Level A or B ensembles as described in previous sections. Chemical-protective ensembles must be designed to protect the wearer’s upper and lower torso, head, hands, and feet. Ensemble elements must include protective garments, protective gloves, and protective footwear. Ensembles must accommodate appropriate respiratory protection.

Lesson 4

PPE-Related Stresses

Most PPE inhibits your body’s ability to disperse heat and moisture, which is magnified because you are usually performing strenuous work while wearing the equipment. Thus, wearing PPE may increase your risk of heat-related disorders. However, when working in cold climates, you may also suffer cold-related disorders. CPC is not designed to provide insulation against the cold. Taking preventive measures will help protect you from these potential problems.

Heat Emergencies

Wearing PPE or other special full-body protective clothing puts you at considerable risk of developing health effects ranging from transient heat fatigue to serious illness (heat stroke) or even death.

Heat disorders include:

• Heat stroke (the most serious; see Safety Alert)
• Heat exhaustion
• Heat cramps
• Heat rashes

Heat-Exposure Prevention

Responders wearing protective clothing need to be monitored for the effects of heat exposure. Methods to prevent and/or reduce the effects of heat exposure include the following:

Fluid consumption

Use water or commercial body-fluid-replenishment drink mixes to prevent dehydration. You should drink generous amounts of fluids both before and during operations. Drinking 7 ounces (200 ml) of fluid every 15 to 20 minutes is better than drinking large quantities once an hour. Balanced diets normally provide enough salts to avoid cramping problems.

Details:

• Before working, drinking chilled water is good.
• After a work period in protective clothing and an increase in core temperature, drinking room-temperature water is better. It is not as severe a shock to the body.

Air Cooling

Wear long cotton undergarments, moisture-wicking modern fabrics, or similar clothing to pro-vide natural body ventilation. Once PPE has been removed, blowing air can help to evaporate sweat, thereby cooling the skin. Wind, fans, blowers, and misters can provide air movement. However, when ambient air temperatures and humidity are high, air movement may provide only limited benefit.

Ice Cooling

Use ice to cool the body; however, use care not to damage skin with direct contact with ice, as well as to avoid cooling off an individual too quickly. Ice will also melt relatively quickly. Ice cooling vests are available.

Water Cooling

Use water to cool the body. When water (even sweat) evaporates from skin, it cools. Provide mobile showers and misting facilities or evaporative cooling vests. Water cooling becomes less effective as air humidity increases and water temperatures rise.

Cooling Vests

Wear cooling vests beneath PPE (Figure 26.27). Cooling vest technologies may use the technologies detailed in Table 26.2. Cooling vests may be cumbersome, bulky, and they may impair movement.

Rest/rehab areas

Provide shade, humidity changers (misters), and air-conditioned areas for resting (Figure 26.28).

Work Rotation
Rotate responders exposed to extreme temperatures or those performing difficult tasks frequently.

Proper Liquids

Avoid liquids such as alcohol, coffee, and caffeinated drinks (or minimize their intake) be-fore working. These beverages can contribute to dehydration and heat stress.

Physical Fitness

Encourage responders to maintain physical fitness.

 Cold Emergencies

Cold temperatures may be caused by weather and/or other conditions such as exposure to cryogenic liquids. Prolonged exposure to freezing temperatures can result in health problems as serious as trench foot, frostbite, and hypothermia. The primary environmental conditions that cause cold-related stress are low temperatures, high/cool winds, dampness, cold water, and standing/walking/working on cold, snowy and/or icy surfaces. Wind chill, a combination of temperature and velocity, is a crucial factor to evaluate when working outside. For example, when the actual air temperature of the wind is 40°F (4.5°C) and its velocity is 35 mph (55 km/h), the exposed skin experiences conditions equivalent to the still-air temperature of 11°F (-12°C) (Table 26.3). Rapid heat loss may occur when exposed to high winds and cold temperatures.

You can prevent cold disorders with the following precautions:

• Being active
• Wearing warm clothing/layers
• Avoiding cold beverages
• Rehabbing in a warm area
• Dressing appropriately Psychological Issues

The use of CPC can be a confining experience. Whether working in a Level A fully encapsulated suit or even a lower level suit, CPC will be much more confining than structural fire fighting clothing and equipment. This confinement may cause claustrophobia in responders. In addition to the confinement of the protective clothing, just knowing the hazards of the chemicals involved may be disconcerting to the responder.

Psychological issues may be preventable through adequate training. As the responder works with the equipment and gains familiarity, confidence will build. Still, the mind is a very powerful organ and severe claustrophobia may be debilitating for a responder. If this is the case, emergency response in CPC may not be suitable for some responders.

Medical Monitoring

Medical monitoring should be conducted before responders wearing PPE enter the warm and hot zones (pre-entry monitoring) as well as after leaving these zones (post-entry monitoring) as directed by the authority having jurisdiction. Vital signs, hydration, skin, mental status, and medical history should be checked. Each organization needs to establish written medical monitoring guidelines that establish minimum and maximum values for these evaluations. A post-medical monitoring follow-up is also recommended. Keep exposure records in conjunction with any medical records for employees who have worked in proximity to the hazard. Because exposures to hazardous chemicals may not present any signs or symptoms for many years, it is a legal requirement to retain medical records per the AHJ.

Exposure records should include the following information:

• Type of exposure
• Length of exposure
• Description of PPE used
• Type of decontamination used including any decontamination solutions
• On scene and follow-up medical attention and/or assistance

Lesson 5

PPE Use

There is much more to the use of PPE ensembles than just putting on the ensemble. While it is imperative that you be proficient in donning the equipment, you must also be able to safely function in the suit while performing both simple and challenging tasks. As familiarity increases, so will the comfort levels. Increased comfort levels will help reduce your stress. This reduced stress can help increase both your proficiency and work time.

Pre-Entry Inspection

Check equipment before you enter into a hazardous atmosphere (Figure 26.29). A thorough visual inspection should uncover any defects or deformities in the protective equipment.

In addition to the visual inspection, confirm all pressure test completion dates, and conduct an operational check of the following items:

• Breathing apparatus
• All zippers and closures
• Valves
• Communications equipment
• Any equipment that will be taken or used in the hot zone

Safety and Emergency Procedures

In addition to issues such as cooling, preventing dehydration, and medical monitoring, there are other safety and emergency issues involved with wearing PPE.

Examples include:

• Responders using PPE at hazmat incidents must be familiar with their local procedures for going through the technical decontamination process.
• Anytime emergency responders are to enter an IDLH atmosphere, they should always work in teams of two or more (buddy system), with a minimum of two equally trained and equipped personnel outside the IDLH atmosphere ready to rescue other emergency responders should the need arise (backup personnel).
• Responders should operate within their accountability systems, and know their evacuation and escape procedures.

Safety Briefing

A safety briefing will be conducted before responders enter the hot zone. The safety briefing will cover relevant information including:

• Incident status (based on the preliminary evaluation and subsequent updates)
• Identified hazards
• Description of the site
• Tasks to be performed
• Expected duration of the tasks
• Escape route or area of refuge
• PPE and health monitoring requirements
• Incident monitoring requirements
• Notification of identified risks
• Communication procedures, including hand signals

Air Management

Anytime a limited air supply such as SCBA is worn, air management is an important consideration. Emergency procedures should be developed for responder loss of air supply. These procedures may vary depending on the AHJ. To ensure adequate work time, calculate estimated times for the following tasks:

• Walk to the incident
• Return from the incident
• Decon
• Work time
• Safety time (extra time allocated for emergency use)

Air must be allocated for these estimated times. Responders should have a plan in place for dealing with air emergencies. Many organizations have SOPs that explain calculations for doing this and/or designate maximum entry times (such as 20 minutes) based on the air supply available. It may be necessary to stock SCBA cylinders of different sizes and volumes in an agency’s cache of equipment (Table 26.4).

Contamination Avoidance

The terms contamination and exposure are sometimes used interchangeably, but the concepts are actually very different. Contamination can be defined as a condition of impurity resulting from contact or mixture with a foreign substance. In other words, the hazardous material has to touch or be touched by another object. In contrast, exposure means that a hazardous material has entered or potentially entered your body via the routes of entry, for example, by swallowing, breathing, or contacting skin or mucous membranes. Most hazmat responses will likely include contamination, which can increase the risk of exposure. Because of this, avoid contamination as best as possible.

As a responder, you should consider the following best practices:

• Always try to reduce any contact with the product. Avoid walking through and touching the product whenever possible.
• Do not kneel or sit on the ground in CPC, if possible. Contact avoidance is paramount, but allowing a suit to come in contact with the ground may cause chafing or abrasion on the suit allowing for faster suit degradation.
• Protect monitoring instruments as best as possible.

Communications

Communication capabilities are required for all levels of personal protection. Communication devices may be integrated into PPE. Other nonemergency communication methods can include predesignated hand signals, motions, and gestures. Signals for entry-team emergencies such as loss of air supply, medical emergency, or suit failure should also be designated. If possible, entry teams, backup personnel, and appropriate safety personnel at the scene should have their own designated radio channel. Should responders lose radio communications or operate in an atmosphere not allowing radio communications, a backup system must be part of the operational plan. Hand signals used as the backup plan should be simple, easy to remember, and distinguishable from a distance.

Typically, these protocols will involve notifying the appropriate personnel (such as the Entry Team Leader and/or Hazmat Safety Officer), and exiting the hot zone as quickly as possible. The remaining capabilities of equipment should also be communicated during evacuation situations. For example, if air supply is lost while wearing a vapour-protective suit, there is a limited amount of air in the suit itself that can be breathed if the SCBA facepiece or regulator is removed.

In addition to entry-team signals, include an emergency evacuation signal for all responders in the incident action plan. The emergency signal should indicate that an immediate exit from the hot zone is necessary. The signal should be audible (air horns) and also broadcast over the radio frequency.

Donning and Doffing of PPE

You should always train with the protective clothing that you will be using in the field. The donning process can be quite time consuming and confusing for a user who is not totally familiar with the garments. Instructions should be included with all PPE for the total donning and doffing process. Skill sheets 26-2 through 26-4 provide steps for donning, working in, and doffing hazardous materials PPE.

Donning of PPE

While it is imperative that you follow the manufacturer and department recommendations for the donning of PPE, the following guidelines will outline generic donning procedures that may be included in an agency’s procedures:

• Preselect the donning and doffing area in the cold zone as close to the entry point as possible. It should be clearly delineated.
• Ensure that the donning and doffing area is isolated from distractions and sheltered from the elements, if possible.
• Select an area that is large enough to accommodate all personnel involved in the donning and doffing procedures.
• Plan for as many people (including assistants) as needed to be involved in the donning procedures (Figure 26.30).
• Before starting the donning process, each entry and backup team member should be medically evaluated based on AHJ procedures.
• Continue hydration per AHJ procedures.
  

  

• Conduct a mission briefing before the donning process to ensure that all members are attentive and there are no distractions. The mission briefing should include the specifics of the mission such as IAP and site safety plan.
• Deploy chemical-protective clothing in an organized manner.
• Check all equipment visually and operationally prior to donning to ensure proper working order.
• Ensure that the entry team members have removed all their personal effects such as rings, wallets, badges, watches, and pins.
• Don appropriate undergarments at this time, if applicable. Seat the entry team so that their breathing apparatus is accommodated (Figure 26.31).

The physical activity of the donning process should be conducted by assistants to allow the entry and backup personnel the opportunity to rest and reduce stress levels. Once the donning process has begun, the donning supervisor should prepare both the entry team and the backup team at the same rate. The teams should remain ready and off air until the entry order has been given.

Once the entry order has been given, lead the entry teams to the entry access point. The safety officer should perform a final check of all equipment and closures before the teams are allowed to enter the hazard area. The backup team should be left off air and in a resting position until such a time that it may be called into service. Based on the hazards and chemicals involved, the backup team may be put on air and placed within the hot zone to reduce the travel time should the entry team need assistance with a rapid exit.

Doffing of PPE

Many times, the donning supervisor may also serve as the doffing supervisor. This will be very helpful based on the person’s knowledge of the members and equipment that were utilized for the entry. Upon exit, it can be assumed that the entry team has either been contaminated or potentially contaminated by the hazard, thus needing decontamination prior to doffing. Based on the chemical hazards, it may be necessary to have the doffing personnel wear a lower level CPC. Any level of protection needed for doffing activities will be decided upon by the safety officer. The personnel assisting in the doffing procedures should watch for signs and symptoms of heat stress. The entry personnel who will be doffing their protective equipment will most likely be hot, tired, and eager to remove the clothing.

All doffing procedures should follow the manufacturer’s directions, but these generic procedures may be included in any department’s policies and guidelines:

• Personnel who are doffing equipment should allow the assisting personnel to perform the work.
• Entry team members should only touch the inside of the garments and never the outside. Likewise, assisting personnel should only touch the outside of the garments. It is critical that cross contamination be avoided.
• Once the garments are removed, zip or store them so that the inside and outside surfaces cannot touch.
• All entry garments should be placed in a containment bag and appropriately marked.
• The last item removed from the entry personnel should be the respirator facepiece. It should be removed by the user.
• The breathing apparatus should be isolated and marked for appropriate decontamination.
• All entry team and support team members must report immediately to rehab

Lesson 6

Inspection, Storage, Testing, Maintenance, and Documentation

You always want your PPE, tools, and equipment to perform as expected. An emergency incident is not the right place to discover problems with your protective clothing, respiratory protection, or other tools and equipment. The best way to ensure PPE, tools, and equipment always performs to expectation is by following a standard program for inspection, proper storage, maintenance, and cleaning. All inspections, testing, and maintenance must be conducted in accordance with manufacturer’s recommendations.

Procedures are needed for both initial receipt of PPE, tools, and equipment and before and after use or exposure. PPE, tools, and equipment are initially inspected when purchased. Once the equipment is placed into service, the organization’s personnel perform periodic inspections. Operational inspections of respiratory protection equipment occur after each use, daily or weekly, monthly, and annually. The organization must define the frequency and type of inspection in the respiratory protection policy, and they should follow manufacturer’s recommendations. The care, cleaning, and maintenance schedules of respiratory protection and other equipment should be based on the manufacturer’s recommendations, NFPA standards, or OSHA requirements.

PPE must be stored properly to prevent damage or malfunction from exposure to dust, moisture, sunlight, damaging chemicals, extreme temperatures (hot and cold), and impact (Figure 26.32). Many manufacturers specify recommended procedures for storing their products. Follow these procedures to avoid equipment failure resulting from improper storage.

Keep records of all inspection, testing, and maintenance procedures. Reviewing these records periodically can show patterns about equipment that requires excessive maintenance or is susceptible to failure. Follow your agency’s SOPs for proper documentation. After using PPE at an incident, it is important to fill out any associated reports or documentation as required by the AHJ. These reports may include PPE inspection forms, contaminated gear forms, de-provisioning forms, or any others as required by the AHJ.

Lesson 7

Spill Control

Spill-control tactics confine a hazardous material that has been released from its container. These tactics attempt to reduce the amount of contact the product makes with people, property, and the environment, limiting the amount of potential harm the products cause. Control actions involving spills are generally defensive in nature (Figure 26.33).

To prevent further contamination, responders should use spill control to confine the hazardous material after its release. For this reason, spill control is often simply called confinement. Spill control primarily acts as a defensive operation, and responders’ safety is a primary consideration. Spills may involve gases, liquids, or solids. The product involved may be released into the air (as a vapour or gas), into water, and/or onto a surface. The type of release determines the spill control method needed to control it. For example, in the event of a flammable liquid spill, you must address both the liquid spreading on the ground and the vapours releasing into the air.

To prevent the spread of liquid materials, methods used include building dams or dikes near the source, catching the material in another container, or directing (diverting) the flow to a remote location for collection. Before using equipment to confine spilled materials, ICs need to seek advice from technical sources to determine if the spilled materials will adversely affect the equipment. If the spill involves a corrosive material, it may react with metals or damage other materials (Figure 26.34). Large or rapidly spreading spills may require the use of heavy construction-type equipment, floating confinement booms, or special sewer and storm drain plugs (Figure 26.35).

Table 26.6 provides a summary of the spill control tactics for different types of releases and their resulting dispersions. It also provides an example of a task related to one of the appropriate tactics.

Absorption

Absorption, like a sponge soaking up water, soaks up or retains a liquid hazardous material in some other mate-rial. The bulk of the liquid being absorbed enters the cell structure of the absorbing medium. When choosing an absorbent, it must be chemically compatible with the material being absorbed. Absorbents tend to swell as they absorb the material.

Common absorbents used at hazmat incidents include (Figure 26.36):

• Sawdust
• Clays
• Charcoal

• 

  Polyolefin-type fibres

• Specially designed absorbent pads, pillows, booms, and socks

The absorbent is spread directly onto the hazardous material or in a location where the material is expected to flow. After use, responders must treat and dispose of absorbents as hazardous materials because they retain the properties of the materials they absorb. Responders often use absorption at incidents involving small spills (55 gallons [208 L] or less), such as gasoline or diesel fuel. While some absorbents, such as sawdust, may work best on shallow pools, other types of spills may require different types of absorbents. For example, responders may use absorbent booms for releases involving waterborne spills in streams or pools. For more information about performing absorption, see Skill Sheet 26-5.

Adsorption

Adsorption differs from absorption in that the molecules of the liquid hazardous material physically adhere to the adsorbent material rather than being absorbed into its inner spaces. Adsorbents tend not to swell like absorbents.

Responders usually use organic-based materials, such as activated charcoal or carbon, as adsorbents. Adsorbents primarily control shallow liquid spills and increasingly replace soap and water or other decon methods. Make sure that the adsorbent used is compatible with the spilled material in order to avoid potentially dangerous reactions. For more information about performing adsorption, see Skill Sheet 26-5.

Blanketing/Covering

Personnel perform blanketing or covering to prevent dispersion of hazardous materials. Operations level responders may not be allowed to perform blanketing/covering actions, depending on the hazards of the material, the nature of the incident, and the distance from which they must operate to ensure their safety. Responders must consider the compatibility between the material being covered and the material covering it (Figure 26.37).

For blanketing or covering solids, such as powders and dusts, the following tools are used:

• Tarps
• Plastic sheeting
• Salvage covers
• Other materials (including foam)

Blanketing/covering may also be used as a form of temporary mitigation for radioactive and biological sub-stances, for example, to reduce alpha or beta radiation or prevent the spread of biological materials. Personnel can blanket/cover incidents involving cryogen leaks to cause the released material to auto-refrigerate beneath the tarp or covering (Figures 26.38 a and b). As a temporary option, responders can cover openings of some liquid containers with plastic sheets or tarps to confine vapours. Blanketing of liquids is essentially the same as vapour suppression (see Vapour Suppression section) because it typically uses an appropriate aqueous (water) foam agent to cover the surface of a spill.

Dam, Dike, Diversion, and Retention

Damming, diking, diverting, and retaining are performed to confine or control a hazardous material (Figure 26.39). These actions control the flow of liquid hazardous materials away from the point of discharge. Responders can use available earthen materials or materials carried on their response vehicles to construct curbs that direct or divert the flow away from gutters, drains, storm sewers, flood-control channels, and outfalls (Figure 26.40). In some cases, it may be desirable to direct the flow into certain locations in order to capture and retain the material for later pickup and disposal. Some dams may permit surface water or runoff to pass over (or under) the dam while holding back the hazardous material (Figure 26.41). Responders must properly dispose of any construction materials that contact the spilled material. See Skill Sheets 26-6, 26-7, 26-8 and 26-9 for instructions on how to perform damming, diking, diversion, and retention.

Vapour Suppression

Vapour suppression reduces the emission of vapours at a hazmat incident (Figure 26.42). Responders use vapour suppression when they apply fire fighting foam to suppress vapours from flammable and combustible liquids. Other examples of vapour suppression include using water fog from hose streams or chemical vapour suppressants. See Skill Sheet 26-10 for more information about performing vapour suppression. The Fire Control section later in this chapter addresses the use of fire fighting foam to suppress vapours and extinguish fires.

Vapour Dispersion

Vapour dispersion directs or influences the course of airborne hazardous materials. Pressurized streams of water from hoselines or unattended master streams may help disperse vapours (Figure 26.43). These streams create turbulence, which increases the rate of the materials mix-ing with air and reduces the concentration of the hazardous material. After using water streams for vapour dispersion, responders must confine and analyze runoff water for possible contamination. Skill Sheet 26-11 provides a set of steps for performing basic vapour dispersion.

Ventilation

Ventilation is performed to control air movement using natural or mechanical means. When spills occur inside structures, ventilation can remove and/or disperse harmful airborne particles, vapours, or gases (Figure 26.44). Personnel can apply the same ventilation techniques that they use for smoke removal to hazmat incidents.

As with other types of spill control, responders should ensure the compatibility of their ventilation equipment with the hazardous atmosphere. When conducting negative-pressure ventilation, personnel should ensure the fans and other ventilators are compatible with the atmosphere where they are being operated. Equipment must be intrinsically safe in a flammable atmosphere. When choosing the type of ventilation to use, remember that positive-pressure ventilation removes atmospheric contaminants more effectively than negative-pressure ventilation.

Dispersion

Dispersion involves breaking up or dispersing a hazardous material that has spilled on a solid or liquid surface. Personnel usually use dispersion agents on hydrocarbon spills, such as crude oil. Personnel usually use dispersion agents, such as oceanic crude oil, on hydrocarbon spills. Dispersion poses problems of spreading the material over a wide area, and the process itself may cause additional problems. Because of these problems, the use of disper-sants may require the approval of government authorities. Dilution Dilution is the application of water to a water-soluble material to reduce the hazard. Dilution of liquid materials rarely has practical applications at hazmat incidents in terms of spill control; responders use dilution more frequently during decontamination operations (Figure 26.45). Diluting hazardous water-soluble liquids requires huge volumes of water that may create runoff problems. Responders may use dilution at spills involving small amounts of corrosive material, such as in cases of irregular dispersion or a minor accident in a laboratory. Even then, it is generally considered for use only after spill control methods have been rejected. A simple set of steps for performing dilution are provided in Skill Sheet 26-12.

Dilution

Dilution is the application of water to a water-soluble material to reduce the hazard. Dilution of liquid materials rarely has practical applications at hazmat incidents in terms of spill control; responders use dilution more frequently during decontamination operations (Figure 26.45). Diluting hazardous water-soluble liquids requires huge volumes of water that may create runoff problems. Responders may use dilution at spills involving small amounts of corrosive material, such as in cases of irregular dispersion or a minor accident in a laboratory. Even then, it is generally considered for use only after spill control methods have been rejected. A simple set of steps for performing dilution are provided in Skill Sheet 26-12.

Neutralization

Some hazardous materials may be neutralized to minimize the amount of harm that they do upon contact. Usually, neutralization involves raising or lowering the pH of corrosive materials to render them neutral (pH 7) (Figure 26.46). Neutralization can also refer to any chemical reaction that reduces the hazard of the material. Neutralization is a difficult process; for example, adding too much of a neutralizer can cause a pH shift in the opposite direction. With few exceptions, responders should only conduct neutralization under the direction of a hazardous materials technician, Allied Professional, or SOPs.

Flammable and Combustible Liquid Spill Control

Most hazmat incidents involve flammable and combustible liquids. Incidents range from spilled fuel at vehicle accidents to major industrial accidents involving bulk containers. The spill control methods used will depend on the incident.

Always consider the following:

• Firefighter protective clothing can absorb flammable and combustible liquids, which can later ignite if exposed to an ignition source (Figure 26.47).
• Avoid contact with products and/or contaminated pools, puddles, or streams.
• Vapours from flammable and combustible liquids are usually heavier than air.
• Flammable and combustible liquids are typically lighter than water and, if so, will float on the surface of water.
• Flammable and combustible liquids are Class B materials; water is an ineffective extinguishing agent.
• Flammable and combustible liquid vapours may be toxic; for example, benzene is a carcinogen.
  Figure 26.48 Fire fighting foam must be compatible with the hazardous material.

Controlling vapours is a priority at flammable and combustible liquid spills. Vapour suppression using fire fighting foam can be effective if the foam concentrate is compatible with the hazardous material (Figure 26.48). Before using foam concentrates, responders must proportion (mix with water) and aerate (mix with air) all foam concentrates.

 

This section will focus on Class B foam concentrates that are used for vapour suppression. There are significant differences in Class B foams. Concentrates designed solely for hydrocarbon fires will not extinguish polar solvent (alcohol-type fuel/liquids that mix) fires regardless of the concentration at which they are used. Water-miscible materials, such as alcohols, esters, and ketones, destroy regular fire fighting foams and require an alcohol-resistant foam agent, therefore responders should not use regular fluorprotein and regular aqueous film form-ing foam (AFFF) on those materials (Figure 26.49). However, responders may use foam concentrates that are intended for polar solvents on hydrocarbon fires. The ERG provides guidance on when to use alcohol-resistant foam for a particular material (Figure 26.50).

Foam concentrates vary in their finished-foam quality and, therefore, in their effectiveness. Manufacturers and suppliers will be able to provide information about freeze-protected versions of foams. Foam quality is mea-sured in terms of its 25-percent-drainage time and its expansion ratio. Drainage time is the time required for one-fourth (25 percent or one-quarter) of the total liquid solution to drain from the foam. Expansion ratio is the volume of finished foam that results from a unit volume of foam solution. In general, the required application rate to control an unignited liquid spill is substantially less than that required to extinguish a spill fire. Long drainage times result in long-lasting foam blankets. The greater the expansion ratio is, the thicker the foam blanket that can be developed (Figure 26.51). All Class B foam concentrates, except the special foams made for acid and alkaline spills, may be used for both fire fighting and vapour suppression. Air-aspirating nozzles produce a larger expansion ratio than water fog nozzles. All foams have different optimal application methods.

Common application methods include:

• The roll-on application method involves applying the foam onto the ground at the edge of the spill and rolling it gently onto the material (Figure 26.52).
• If the spill surrounds some type of obstacle, responders can apply the foam onto the obstacle so the foam will roll down, known as the bank-down application method (Figure 26.53).
• Personnel using the rain-down method spray the foam into the air over the target area in a fog pattern (Figure 26.54). As the foam bubbles burst, the foam melds together to form a film over the fuel. The rain-down method is best used with AFFF.
• Fluoroprotein-type foams ONLY may be plunged directly into the spill.

  Figure 26.52, 26.53, 26.54

   

For vapour suppression, first responders should use air-aspirating foam nozzles rather than water fog nozzles because aerated foam maintains the vapour suppressive blanket longer (Figures 26.55 a and b). For flammable liquid fires, non-aerated AFFF can be effective so water fog nozzles may be used. Adequate vapor suppression relies on selection of the proper foam concentrate. Because finished foam is composed principally of water, you should not use it to cover water-reactive materials. Some fuels destroy foam bubbles; therefore, select a foam concentrate that is compatible with the liquid.

Other points to consider when using foam for vapour suppression include:

• Do not use water streams in conjunction with the application of foam. Water destroys and washes away foam blankets.
• Ensure that a material is below its boiling point; foam cannot seal vapours of boiling liquids.
• Do not rely on the film that precedes the foam blanket (such as with AFFF blankets); it is not a reliable vapour suppressant.
• Reapply aerated foam periodically until the foam completely covers the spill.

Responders should consider many factors at hazardous materials incidents where flammable or combustible liquids are present or burning. Responders should consider (Figure 26.56):

• Where vapours may be present or traveling
• Where and what possible ignition sources are present
• Whether to extinguish the fire and how

If the products of combustion present fewer hazards than the leaking chemical, or extinguishment efforts will place firefighters in undue risk, the best course of action may be to protect exposures and let a fire burn until the fuel is consumed.

Responders should consider withdrawal as potentially the safest (and best) tactical option due to the following:

• A threat of catastrophic container failure
• Boiling liquid expanding vapour explosion (BLEVE) or other explosion
• The resources needed to control the incident are unavailable

Figure 26.57 Fire-control tactics are used to extinguish fires and prevent ignition of hazardous materials. Courtesy of Rich Mahaney.

Tanks with relief valves may still rupture violently if exposed to heat or flames. If flammable liquids have produced enough vapour to ignite, the incident will change focus to fire control. Fire control attempts to minimize the damage, harm, and effect of fire at a hazmat incident. Fire-control tactics aim to extinguish fires and prevent ignition of flammable materials. Fire-control tactics may be offensive or defensive, depending on the situation (Figure 26.57).

Lesson 8

Leak Control

Leak-control tactics are used to contain the product in its original (or another) container, preventing it from escaping. Hazardous materials technicians and specialists perform most leak-control tactics (Figure 26.58). A leak involves the physical breach in a container through which product escapes. The goal of leak control is to stop or limit the escape or to contain the release either in its original container or by transferring it to a new one. Leak control is often referred to as containment.

The type of container involved, the type of breach, and properties of the material determine tactics and tasks relating to leak control. Normally, personnel trained below the Technician level do not attempt offensive actions such as leak control. Notable exceptions include situations involving gasoline, diesel, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), and natural gas fuels. Operations responders can take offensive actions with these fuels provided they have appropriate training, procedures, equipment, and PPE.

Operations level responders may perform leak control by activating emergency shutoff devices on transportation containers and closing shutoff valves at fixed facilities, pipelines, and piping. Skill Sheet 26-13 covers steps for shutting off a remote valve or operating an emergency shutoff device.

Transportation Container Emergency Shutoff Devices

Leak control dictates that personnel enter the hot zone, which puts them at great risk. The IC must remember that the level of training and equipment provided to personnel are limiting factors in performing leak control. Under safe and acceptable circumstances, Operations responders may operate emergency remote shutoff devices on cargo tank trucks and intermodal containers.

Cargo Tank Truck Shutoff Devices

Most cargo tanks have emergency shutoff devices. Device locations are often located behind the driver’s side cab (Figure 26.59). Activation of these shutoff devices vary, but it is usually as simple as pulling a handle, flipping a switch, or breaking off a fusible device.

By type, cargo tank trucks have the following emergency shutoff device configurations:

• High pressure tanks (MC-331): An emergency shutoff device on the left-front corner of the tank (behind the driver). Some will also have one on either the right or the left-rear corner. For example, MC-331s of 3,500 gallon (13 249 L) capacity or larger should have two emergency shutoff devices located remotely from each other — one on the tank behind the driver and the other on the rear of the tank, often on the passenger side (Figure 26.60). These tanks may also have an electronically operated shutdown device that can be activated within 150 feet (46 m) from the vehicle. This device may also stop the engine and perform other functions.
• Non-pressure liquid tanks (MC/DOT-306/406) and low-pressure chemical tanks
  

  

   (MC/DOT-307/407): An emergency shutoff device on the left-front corner of the tank(behind the driver) (Figure 26.61). Some will also have one on either the right or the left rear corner. Some cargo tanks may have emergency shutoffs in the centre of the tank near valves and piping, or built into the valve box (Figure 26.62).

• Corrosive liquid tanks (MC/DOT 312): Do NOT typically have emergency shutoff devices.

Intermodal Container Emergency Shutoff Device

Gas service (high pressure and cryogenic) intermodal containers will have emergency shutoffs for the bottom internal valve. Other containers may have them, depending on manufacturer or owner. Responders can look for a metal cable running down one side of the frame rail of the intermodal container or from the liquid valve to a fixed

point away from the container (Figures 26.63 a-c). Pull this cable to activate the emergency shutoff. You may also be able to pull a handle or other device to activate the emergency shutoff device.

Fixed Facility, Pipelines, and Piping Shutoff Valves

Fixed facilities, piping, and pipelines may also have remote shutoff valves. These remote shutoff or control valves can be operated to stop the flow of product to an incident area without entering the hot zone (Figure 26.64). Depending on the diameter and length of piping, a significant amount of product may release for some time before the flow stops.

Responders should NOT shut any valves without direction from facility or pipeline operators (Figure 26.65). In most cases, on-site fixed-facility maintenance personnel or local utility workers know where these valves are located and can be given the authority and responsibility for closing them under the IC’s direction. Generally, these personnel will understand the proper procedures and consequences of closing the valve.

Operations level responders who are trained and authorized to operate shutoff valves at their facilities in the event of emergency may do so in accordance with their SOPs. It may be safe for responders to shut off some natural gas lines, for example, shutting off the gas at the meter to the house or business. Generally, the meter is located outside the structure near the foundation or on the easement near the property line. However, you may find it inside the structure in a basement or mechanical space.

The shutoff is an inline valve located on the owner supply side of the meter; that is, between the distribution system and the meter. When the valve is open, the tang (a rectangular bar) is in line with the pipe. To close the valve, use a spanner wrench, pipe wrench, or similar tool to turn the tang until it is 90 degrees to the pipe (Figure 26.66). Contact the local utility company when the gas has been shut off or when any emergency involving natural gas occurs in its service area.

Lesson 9

Decontamination

Decontamination (decon) is an essential activity that must be considered at any hazardous materials or terrorism incident to ensure the safety of emergency responders and the public. Emergency decontamination should be established at all hazmat incidents. Contamination is the transfer of a hazardous material to persons, equipment, and the environment in greater than acceptable quantities.

There are two types of contamination:

• Direct contamination, when there is contact with the source of contamination
• Cross contamination (also called secondary contamination), when contamination occurs without contacting the direct source

Contaminants may be solids, liquids, or gases. Contaminant hazards vary depending on the material involved, but may be divided into the following types: chemical, physical, or biological. Contamination can be external (on the outside of the body or PPE) or internal (on the inside of the body).

Exposure is the process by which people, animals, or the environment are subjected to, or come in contact with, a material; but, the material may not have been transferred. For example: If you smell perfume, you have been exposed to it because some of the perfume molecules have entered your nose in order to be smelled (exposure route = inhalation). However, you are not likely to carry the perfume (or its smell) around unless you have actually been contaminated by the perfume, which implies that you got enough of the material on you that it physically remains there. In the same way, decontamination may not be necessary if an individual has been exposed to a hazardous material rather than contaminated by it.

Decontamination is performed at hazmat/WMD incidents to remove hazardous materials from responders, victims, PPE, tools, equipment, and anything else that has been contaminated (Figure 26.67). Everyone and everything in the hot zone is subject to contact with the hazardous material and can become contaminated. Because of this potential, anything that goes into the hot zone passes through a decon area when leaving the zone.

Decontamination also provides victims with psychological reassurance. Some individuals who have been potentially exposed to hazardous materials may develop psychologically-based symptoms (such as shortness of breath, anxiety) even if they have not actually been exposed to harmful levels of contamination. Conducting decon can reduce or prevent these types of problems. It is important to continually assess the effectiveness of any decontamination operation. If monitoring determines that the selected method is not working, a different technique must be tried.

The type of decon operations conducted at an incident will be determined by a variety of factors, including (Figure 26.68):

• Number of persons requiring decon
• Type of hazardous materials involved
• Weather (washing off contaminants with a hose stream may not be a viable option in cold temperatures)
• Personnel and equipment available

Although emergency responders may have considerable experience with decon at hazmat incidents, perform-ing decon at a terrorist incident may require some changes to the procedures used. Hazmat/WMD incidents may involve large numbers of people that have to be quickly assessed for injury or exposure and then passed through a decon corridor for treatment or safe sheltering away from the incident area (mass decon). Also, since a terrorist incident must be treated as a crime scene, any clothing, equipment, or contaminated materials have to be protected as evidence and handled in accordance with locally adopted policies and procedures.

Gross Decontamination

Gross decontamination is a phase of decontamination where significant reduction of the amount surface contamination takes place as quickly as possible. Traditionally, gross decon was accomplished by mechanical removal of the contaminant or initial rinsing from handheld hose lines, emergency showers, or other nearby sources of water at hazmat incidents. Fire research continues to demonstrate that numerous carcinogens are present in almost all types of fires, most notably formaldehyde and benzene.

Today’s firefighters encounter fires with toxic gases, vapours, and particulate matter in smoke that contaminate firefighter protective gear and increase the risk of dermal contamination and the severity of inhalation injury. Because of increased awareness of firefighters’ cancer risk, gross decon is now recommended at all emergency incidents involving exposure to potentially hazardous substances, including the toxic products of combustion (Taking Action … 2013).

Importance of Clean PPE

PPE can absorb the carcinogens in smoke and therefore should be cleaned after every exposure to smoke. Whenever possible, firefighters should have two sets of PPE so that a clean ensemble is available while a contaminated one is being cleaned. If you only have one ensemble, wash the gear as soon as possible after each use.

Gross decontamination is performed in the following situations:

• Emergency responders exposed to smoke or products of combustion, before leaving the scene of the incident
• Responders before undergoing technical decontamination

• 

  Victims during emergency decontamination

• Persons requiring mass decontamination

One advantage of gross decon is that it is conducted in the field, so the reduction of contaminants is immediate. A disadvantage is that, while it may remove the worst surface contamination, it may not remove all contaminants. Gross decon is not complete decon, and it should be followed by more thorough decontamination afterwards. Skill Sheet 26-14 provides steps for conducting gross decon at an emergency scene involving toxic products of combustion. Emergency Decontamination The goal of emergency decontamination is to remove the threatening contaminant from the victim as quickly as possible — there is no regard for the environment or property protection. Emergency decon may be necessary for both victims and rescuers (Figure 26.69). If either is contaminated, individuals must remove their clothing (or PPE) and wash quickly. Victims may need immediate medical treatment, and they cannot wait for the establishment of a formal decontamination corridor.

However, emergency decontamination has definite limitations. All contaminants may not be removed, and a more thorough decontamination must follow. Emergency decontamination can harm the environment. If possible, measures must be taken to protect the environment, but such measures should not delay lifesaving actions. The advantage of mitigating a life-threatening situation far outweighs any negative effects that may result.

Seemingly normal incidents may involve hazardous materials. Emergency responders may become contaminated before they realize what the situation really is. When these situations occur, emergency responders need to withdraw immediately and follow local procedures for emergency decontamination. Should their air supply allow, responders should remain isolated until someone with the proper expertise and monitoring equipment can ensure that they have been adequately decontaminated. Emergency decon should be conducted in a safe area. Responders conducting emergency decon should wear appropriate PPE, and they should always avoid contacting contaminants or potentially contaminated surfaces. If responders do contact contaminants, they may need to decontaminate themselves. Follow SOPs for conducting emergency decon.

Emergency decontamination procedures may differ depending on the circumstances and hazards present at the scene. Refer to Skill Sheet 26-15 for steps in conducting emergency decontamination. Decontamination Records Additional reports and supporting technical documentation such as incident reports, after action reports, and regulatory citations may be required by emergency response plans and/or SOPs. Exposure records may also need to be filled out and filed. Exposure records are required for all first responders who have been exposed or potentially exposed to hazardous materials.

Follow-up examinations should be scheduled with medical personnel, if necessary. The individual, the individual’s personal physician, and the individual’s employer need to keep copies of these exposure records for reference. An activity log must be maintained during the incident or put together afterwards, as appropriate. At a mini-mum, information for the activity log should be captured during the incident debrief. The activity log may be pre-formatted, and must document the chronology of the events and activities that occurred during the incident and decon procedure. In the U.S., OSHA standard 29 CFR 1910.1020 (Access to Employee Exposure and Medical Records) should be followed as a guide for requirements involving medical records and maintaining exposure reports. SOPs should spell out additional requirements for local record keeping and reports. 

Chapter Review